# Deconvolution Benchmark in Human DLPFC

# Introduction

## What is Deconvolution?

Inferring the composition of different cell types in a bulk RNA-seq data

Deconvolution is a analysis that aims to calculate the proportion of different cell types that make up a sample of bulk RNA-seq, based off of cell type gene expression profiles in a single cell/nuclei RNA-seq dataset.

Figure 1. Overview on how to use single cell data to infer the composition of bulk RNA-seq samples

### Deconvolution Methods

There are 20+ published reference based deconvolution methods. Below are a selection of 6 methods we tested in our deconvolution benchmark study.

Approach | Method | Citation | Availability
--- | --- | --- | ---
weighted least squares | DWLS | Tsoucas et al, Nature Comm, 2019 | R Package CRAN
Bias correction: Assay | Bisque | Jew et al, Nature Comm, 2020 | R Package GitHub
Bias correction: Source | MuSiC | Wang et al, Nature Communications, 2019 | R Package GitHub
Machine Learning | CIBERSORTx | Newman et al., Nature BioTech, 2019 | Webtool
Bayesian | BayesPrism | Chu et al., Nature Cancer, 2022 | Webtool/R Package
linear | Hspe | Hunt et al., Ann. Appl. Stat, 2021 | R package GitHub

## Goals of this Vignette

We will be demonstrating how to use `DeconvoBuddies` tools when applying deconvolution with the `Bisque` package.

1. Install and load required packages
2. Download DLPFC RNA-seq data, and reference snRNA-seq data
3. Find marker genes with `DeconvoBuddies` tools
4. Run deconvolution with `BisqueRNA`
5. Explore deconvolution output and create composition plots with `DeconvoBuddies` tools
6. Check proportion against RNAScope estimated proportions

## Video Tutorial

Linked is a video from a presentation of an earlier version of this tutorial from our LIBD Rstats club.

# Basics

# 1. Install and load required packages

`R` is an open-source statistical environment which can be easily modified to enhance its functionality via packages. DeconvoBuddies is a `R` package available via the Bioconductor repository for packages. `R` can be installed on any operating system from CRAN after which you can install DeconvoBuddies by using the following commands in your `R` session:

## Install `DeconvoBuddies`

    if (!requireNamespace("BiocManager", quietly = TRUE)) {
        install.packages("BiocManager")
    }

    BiocManager::install("DeconvoBuddies")

    ## Check that you have a valid Bioconductor installation
    BiocManager::valid()

## Load Other Packages

Let’s load the packages we’ll be using in this vignette.

    ## Packages for different types of RNA-seq data structures in R
    library("SummarizedExperiment")
    library("SingleCellExperiment")
    library("Biobase")

    ## For downloading data
    library("spatialLIBD")

    ## Other helper packages for this vignette
    library("dplyr")
    library("tidyr")
    library("tibble")
    library("ggplot2")

    ## Our main package
    library("DeconvoBuddies")

# 2. Download DLPFC RNA-seq data, and reference snRNA-seq data.

## Bulk RNA-seq data

Access the 110 sample Human DLPFC bulk RNA-seq dataset for LIBD described in more detail here. These samples
are from 19 tissue blocks, and 10 neurotypical adult donors. Samples were sequenced with two different `library_types` (polyA and RiboZeroGold), and three different `RNA_extraction` (Cyto, Total, Nuc). There are in total n=110 samples after quality control.

    ## use fetch deconvo data to load rse_gene
    rse_gene <- fetch_deconvo_data("rse_gene")
    #> 2026-05-28 06:26:10.56512 Access ExperimentHub EH9625
    #> see ?DeconvoBuddies and browseVignettes('DeconvoBuddies') for documentation
    #> loading from cache
    rse_gene
    #> class: RangedSummarizedExperiment
    #> dim: 21745 110
    #> metadata(1): SPEAQeasy_settings
    #> assays(2): counts logcounts
    #> rownames(21745): ENSG00000227232.5 ENSG00000278267.1 ... ENSG00000210195.2 ENSG00000210196.2
    #> rowData names(11): Length gencodeID ... gencodeTx passExprsCut
    #> colnames(110): 2107UNHS-0291_Br2720_Mid_Bulk 2107UNHS-0291_Br2720_Mid_Cyto ... AN00000906_Br8667_Mid_Cyto
    #>   AN00000906_Br8667_Mid_Nuc
    #> colData names(80): SAMPLE_ID Sample ... diagnosis qc_class
    # lobstr::obj_size(rse_gene)
    # 41.16 MB

    ## Use gene "Symbol" as identifiers for the genes in rownames(rse_gene)
    rownames(rse_gene) <- rowData(rse_gene)$Symbol

    ## bulk RNA seq samples were sequenced with different library types,
    ## and RNA extractions
    table(rse_gene$library_type, rse_gene$library_prep)
    #>
    #>                Bulk Cyto Nuc
    #>   polyA          19   18  18
    #>   RiboZeroGold   19   19  17

## Reference snRNA-seq data

This data is paired with a single nucleus RNA-seq data set from `spatialLIBD`. This dataset can be accessed with `spatialLIBD::fetch_data()`.

    ## Use spatialLIBD to fetch the snRNA-seq dataset used in this project
    sce_path_zip <- fetch_deconvo_data("sce")
    #> adding rname 'https://www.dropbox.com/s/5919zt00vm1ht8e/sce_DLPFC_annotated.zip?dl=1'
    #> 2026-05-28 06:26:57.81413 loading file /github/home/.cache/R/BiocFileCache/278c765a31f5_sce_DLPFC_annotated.zip%3Fdl%3D1

    ## unzip and load the data
    sce_path <- unzip(sce_path_zip, exdir = tempdir())
    sce <- HDF5Array::loadHDF5SummarizedExperiment(
        file.path(tempdir(), "sce_DLPFC_annotated")
    )

    # lobstr::obj_size(sce)
    # 172.28 MB

    ## exclude Ambiguous cell type
    sce <- sce[, sce$cellType_broad_hc != "Ambiguous"]
    sce$cellType_broad_hc <- droplevels(sce$cellType_broad_hc)

    ## Check the number of genes by the number of nuclei that we
    ## have to work with:
    dim(sce)
    #> [1] 36601 56447

    ## Check the broad cell type distribution
    table(sce$cellType_broad_hc)
    #>
    #>     Astro EndoMural     Micro     Oligo       OPC     Excit     Inhib
    #>      3979      2157      1601     10894      1940     24809     11067

    ## We're going to subset to the first 5k genes to save memory
    ## just for this example. You wouldn't do this on a full analysis.
    sce <- sce[seq_len(5000), ]

## Orthogonal Cell Type Proportion from RNAScope/IF

An alternative method for calculating cell type proportions is through imaging a slice of tissue with cell type probes using single molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH) experiments performed with RNAScope/IF (ImmunoFluorescence). Then analyse the image to count cells and annotate them by cell type. In this study we used HALO from Indica Labs for this step.

The cell type proportions from the RNAScope/IF experiment will be used to evaluate the accuracy of cell type proportion estimates.

Figure 2. RNAScope/IF measures the cell type proportions through imaging

The RNAScope/IF proportion data is stored as a `data.frame` object in `DeconvoBuddies::RNAScope_prop`.

Key columns in `RNAScope_prop`:

- `SAMPLE_ID`: DLPFC Tissue block + RNAScope combination.

- `Sample` : DLFPC Tissue block (Donor BrNum + DLPFC position).

- `cell_type` : The cell type measured.

- `n_cell` : the number of cells counted for the Sample and cell type.

- `prop` : the calculated cell type proportion from n_cell

    # Access the RNAScope proportion data.frame
    data("RNAScope_prop")
    head(RNAScope_prop)
    #>        SAMPLE_ID      Sample  Combo cell_type Confidence n_cell       prop n_cell_sn    prop_sn
    #> 1 Br2720P_CIRCLE Br2720_post Circle     Astro       High   3385 0.09357808        81 0.04287983
    #> 2 Br2720P_CIRCLE Br2720_post Circle EndoMural       High   1680 0.04644348        66 0.03493912
    #> 3 Br2720P_CIRCLE Br2720_post Circle     Inhib       High   3092 0.08547812        94 0.04976178
    #> 4 Br2720P_CIRCLE Br2720_post Circle     Other       High  28016 0.77450032        NA         NA
    #> 5   Br2720P_STAR Br2720_post   Star     Excit       High   8687 0.23132639      1198 0.63419799
    #> 6   Br2720P_STAR Br2720_post   Star     Micro       High   1416 0.03770671        47 0.02488089

    ## plot the RNAScope compositions
    plot_composition_bar(
        prop_long = RNAScope_prop,
        sample_col = "SAMPLE_ID",
        x_col = "SAMPLE_ID",
        add_text = FALSE
    ) +
        facet_wrap(~Combo, nrow = 2, scales = "free_x")

Above we can see the cell proportions for each of the samples in either the `Circle` or the `Star` combination of RNAScope/IF probes. Each combination of RNAScope/IF probes was able to assess different sets of cell types. Two of them had to be used to measure the number of cell types studied in this case as there are limits on how many unique probes you can measure in a given RNAScope/IF experiment. For more details about the RNAScope/IF combinations, check the paper describing this study.

# 3. Select Marker Genes

Marker genes are genes with high expression in one cell type and low expression in other cell types, or “cell-type specific” expression. These genes can be used to learn more about the identity and function of cell types, but here we are interested in using a sets of cell type specific marker genes to reduce noise in deconvolution and increase accuracy.

We have developed a method for finding marker genes called the “Mean Ratio”. We calculate the MeanRatio for a target cell type for each gene by dividing the mean expression of the target cell by the mean expression of the next highest non-target cell type. Genes with the highest MeanRatio values are selected as marker genes.

For a tutorial on marker gene selection check out Vignette: Finding Marker Genes with Deconvo Buddies.

Figure 3. Mean Ratio calculation process compared to 1vALL Marker Gene selection

## Use `get_mean_ratio()` to find marker genes.

The function `DeconvoBuddies::get_mean_ratio()` calculates the MeanRatio and the rank of genes for a specified cell type annotation in an `SingleCellExperiment` object.

    # calculate the Mean Ratio of genes for each cell type
    marker_stats <- get_mean_ratio(sce,
        cellType_col = "cellType_broad_hc",
        gene_ensembl = "gene_id",
        gene_name = "gene_name"
    )
    #> Warning in get_mean_ratio(sce, cellType_col = "cellType_broad_hc", gene_ensembl = "gene_id", : Assay is a
    #> DelayedMatrix. For considerably faster marker finding, consider bringing in memory as a dgCMatrix.

    # check the top gene ranked gene for each cell type
    marker_stats |>
        group_by(cellType.target) |>
        slice(1)
    #> # A tibble: 7 × 10
    #> # Groups:   cellType.target [7]
    #>   gene  cellType.target mean.target cellType.2nd mean.2nd MeanRatio MeanRatio.rank MeanRatio.anno gene_ensembl gene_name
    #>   <chr> <fct>                 <dbl> <fct>           <dbl>     <dbl>          <int> <chr>          <chr>        <chr>
    #> 1 PRDM… Astro                  1.97 EndoMural      0.142      13.9               1 Astro/EndoMur… ENSG0000014… PRDM16
    #> 2 SLC2… EndoMural              1.49 Astro          0.146      10.2               1 EndoMural/Ast… ENSG0000011… SLC2A1
    #> 3 LINC… Micro                  1.57 Excit          0.0640     24.5               1 Micro/Excit: … ENSG0000023… LINC01141
    #> 4 AC01… Oligo                  2.37 OPC            0.147      16.1               1 Oligo/OPC: 16… ENSG0000022… AC012494…
    #> 5 MIR3… OPC                    1.58 Excit          0.205       7.69              1 OPC/Excit: 7.… ENSG0000022… MIR3681HG
    #> 6 AC01… Excit                  1.01 Inhib          0.135       7.51              1 Excit/Inhib: … ENSG0000023… AC011995…
    #> 7 LYPD… Inhib                  1.20 Excit          0.0967     12.4               1 Inhib/Excit: … ENSG0000015… LYPD6B

The columns of this table are documented in detail at `DeconvoBuddies::get_mean_ratio()`. Though `cellType.target` lists the target cell type for which the MeanRatio is being calculated. It is the numerator of the MeanRatio. The `cellType.2nd` lists the cell type against which the target cell type is being compared. It is the denominator of the MeanRatio.

## Plot the top marker genes

Use `DeconvoBuddies` plotting tools to quickly plot the gene expression of the top 4 Excitatory neuron marker genes across the `cellType_broad_hc` cell type annotations.

    # plot expression across cell type the top 4 Excit marker genes
    plot_marker_express(sce,
        stats = marker_stats,
        cell_type = "Excit",
        cellType_col = "cellType_broad_hc",
        rank_col = "MeanRatio.rank",
        anno_col = "MeanRatio.anno",
        gene_col = "gene"
    )

Looks nice and cell type specific!

Note how `plot_marker_express()` lists the 2 cell types that are being compared that result in the specific numerical MeanRatio value being displayed. As we specified that our target cell type is `"Excit"` in our call to `plot_marker_express()`, the numerator is `Excit` in all the panels shown above.

### Create a List of Marker Genes

With the MeanRatio calculated, we will select the top 25 highest Mean Ratio genes for each cell type, that also exists in the bulk data `rse_gene`.

    # select top 25 marker genes for each cell type, that are also in rse_gene
    marker_genes <- marker_stats |>
        filter(MeanRatio.rank <= 25 & gene %in% rownames(rse_gene))

    # check how many genes for each cell type (some genes are not in both datasets)
    marker_genes |> count(cellType.target)
    #> # A tibble: 7 × 2
    #>   cellType.target     n
    #>   <fct>           <int>
    #> 1 Astro              22
    #> 2 EndoMural          25
    #> 3 Micro              24
    #> 4 Oligo              23
    #> 5 OPC                22
    #> 6 Excit              21
    #> 7 Inhib              24

    # create a vector of marker genes to subset data before deconvolution
    marker_genes <- marker_genes |> pull(gene)

# 4. Prep Data and Run Bisque

Bisque is an R package for cell type deconvolution. In our deconvolution benchmark, we found it was a top performing method. Below we will briefly show how to run `Bisque`’s “reference based decomposition (deconvolution)”.

## Prepare data

To run `Bisque` the snRNA-seq and bulk data must first be converted to `Biobase::ExpressionSet()` format. We will subset our data to our selected MeanRatio marker genes.

The snRNA-seq data must also be filtered for cells with no counts across marker genes.

    # NOT RUN - no longer running Bisque - see next section for details

    if(FALSE){
    ## convert bulk data to Expression set, sub-setting to marker genes
    ## include sample ID
    exp_set_bulk <- Biobase::ExpressionSet(
        assayData = assays(rse_gene[marker_genes, ])$counts,
        phenoData = AnnotatedDataFrame(
            as.data.frame(colData(rse_gene))[c("SAMPLE_ID")]
        )
    )

    ## convert snRNA-seq data to Expression set, sub-setting to marker genes
    ## include cell type and donor information
    exp_set_sce <- Biobase::ExpressionSet(
        assayData = as.matrix(assays(sce[marker_genes, ])$counts),
        phenoData = AnnotatedDataFrame(
            as.data.frame(colData(sce))[, c("cellType_broad_hc", "BrNum")]
        )
    )

    ## check for nuclei with 0 marker expression
    zero_cell_filter <- colSums(exprs(exp_set_sce)) != 0
    message("Exclude ", sum(!zero_cell_filter), " cells")

    exp_set_sce <- exp_set_sce[, zero_cell_filter]
    }

## Run Bisque

`Bisque` needs the bulk and single cell `ExpressionSet` we prepared above, plus columns in the single cell data that specify the cell type annotation to use `cellType_broad_hc` and donor id (`BrNum` in this data).

NOTE: Bisque is no longer available on CRAN (as of July 2025) so cannot be run in this vignette. We’ll use pre-computed estimates for this vignette instead. (loaded in the next section).

    ## NOT RUN - Bisque unavailable on CRAN

    ## Run Bisque with bulk and single cell ExpressionSet inputs
    ## For running deconvolution

    # But the development version can be installed from github via:
    # devtools::install_github("cozygene/bisque")

    if(FALSE){
    # library("BisqueRNA")

    est_prop <- ReferenceBasedDecomposition(
        bulk.eset = exp_set_bulk,
        sc.eset = exp_set_sce,
        cell.types = "cellType_broad_hc",
        subject.names = "BrNum",
        use.overlap = FALSE
    )

    ## Examine the output from Bisque, transpose to make it easier to work with
    est_prop <- t(est_prop$bulk.props)

    }

## Explore Output

`Bisque` predicts the proportion of the cell types in `cellType_broad_hc` for each sample in the bulk data.

    ## Load the pre-computed estimated proportions
    data("est_prop")

    ## sample x cell type matrix
    head(est_prop)
    #>                                    Astro  EndoMural      Micro     Oligo        OPC     Excit     Inhib
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br2720_Mid_Bulk 0.03620838 0.01450229 0.00822044 0.1898306 0.06093697 0.4041093 0.2861921
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br2720_Mid_Cyto 0.04270700 0.01480779 0.02118528 0.1624367 0.02924472 0.4800840 0.2495345
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br2720_Mid_Nuc  0.04792806 0.03613114 0.02192201 0.1584692 0.03148864 0.4617759 0.2422850
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br6432_Ant_Bulk 0.05450912 0.02715661 0.01473154 0.1668393 0.11035566 0.3911678 0.2352399
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br6432_Ant_Cyto 0.05722515 0.02115855 0.03127993 0.1432068 0.05399435 0.5010104 0.1921248
    #> 2107UNHS-0291_Br6432_Ant_Nuc  0.05762778 0.03489159 0.02267823 0.1543922 0.08059862 0.4445150 0.2052966

# 5. Explore deconvolution output and create composition plots with `DeconvoBuddies` tools

To visualize the cell type proportion predictions, we can plot cell type composition bar plots with `DeconvoBuddies::plot_composition_bar()`, either the prediction for each sample, or the average proportion over a group of samples.

    ## add Phenotype data to proportion estimates
    pd <- colData(rse_gene) |>
        as.data.frame() |>
        select(SAMPLE_ID, Sample, library_combo)

    ## make proportion estimates long so they are ggplot2 friendly
    prop_long <- est_prop |>
        as.data.frame() |>
        tibble::rownames_to_column("SAMPLE_ID") |>
        tidyr::pivot_longer(!SAMPLE_ID, names_to = "cell_type", values_to = "prop") |>
        left_join(pd)
    #> Joining with `by = join_by(SAMPLE_ID)`

    ## create composition bar plots

    ## for all library preparations by sample n=110
    ## Remove the SAMPLE_ID names since they are very long using ggplot2::theme()
    plot_composition_bar(
        prop_long = prop_long,
        sample_col = "SAMPLE_ID",
        x_col = "SAMPLE_ID",
        add_text = FALSE
    ) +
        theme(axis.text.x = element_blank(), axis.ticks.x = element_blank())

    ## Average by brain donor
    plot_composition_bar(
        prop_long = prop_long,
        sample_col = "SAMPLE_ID",
        x_col = "Sample",
        add_text = FALSE
    )

    ## Each brain donor has up to 6 unique RNA library type and RNA extraction
    ## combinations
    table(prop_long$Sample) / length(unique(prop_long$cell_type))
    #>
    #>  Br2720_mid Br2720_post  Br2743_ant  Br3942_ant  Br3942_mid  Br6423_ant Br6423_post  Br6432_ant  Br6432_mid  Br6471_ant
    #>           5           6           5           6           6           6           6           6           6           6
    #>  Br6471_mid  Br6522_mid Br6522_post  Br8325_ant  Br8325_mid  Br8492_mid Br8492_post  Br8667_ant  Br8667_mid
    #>           6           6           6           6           5           5           6           6           6

    ## Here are the 6 "SAMPLE_ID" values for brain donor with ID "Br8667_mid"
    unique(prop_long$SAMPLE_ID[prop_long$Sample == "Br8667_mid"])
    #> [1] "AN00000904_Br8667_Mid_Bulk" "AN00000904_Br8667_Mid_Cyto" "AN00000904_Br8667_Mid_Nuc"  "AN00000906_Br8667_Mid_Bulk"
    #> [5] "AN00000906_Br8667_Mid_Cyto" "AN00000906_Br8667_Mid_Nuc"

This is a more complex scenario than the one from the introductory vignette where we were using random data. The first plot shows each of the n=110 bulk RNA-seq samples we have. The second plot shows the composition using the average across the 6 RNA library types and RNA extractions for each brain donor.

# 6. Check proportion against RNAScope/IF estimated proportions

Note to compare the deconvolution results to the RNAScope/IF proportions, Oligo and OPC need to be added together.

    ## Combine Oligo and OPC into OligoOPC
    prop_long_opc <- prop_long |>
        mutate(cell_type = gsub("Oligo|OPC", "OligoOPC", cell_type)) |>
        group_by(SAMPLE_ID, Sample, library_combo, cell_type) |>
        summarize(prop = sum(prop)) |>
        ungroup()
    #> `summarise()` has regrouped the output.
    #> ℹ Summaries were computed grouped by SAMPLE_ID, Sample, library_combo, and cell_type.
    #> ℹ Output is grouped by SAMPLE_ID, Sample, and library_combo.
    #> ℹ Use `summarise(.groups = "drop_last")` to silence this message.
    #> ℹ Use `summarise(.by = c(SAMPLE_ID, Sample, library_combo, cell_type))` for per-operation grouping (`?dplyr::dplyr_by`)
    #>   instead.

    prop_long_opc |> count(cell_type)
    #> # A tibble: 6 × 2
    #>   cell_type     n
    #>   <chr>     <int>
    #> 1 Astro       110
    #> 2 EndoMural   110
    #> 3 Excit       110
    #> 4 Inhib       110
    #> 5 Micro       110
    #> 6 OligoOPC    110

    ## Join RNAScope/IF and Bisque cell type proportions
    prop_compare <- prop_long_opc |>
        inner_join(
            RNAScope_prop |>
                select(Sample, cell_type, prop_RNAScope = prop, prop_sn),
            by = c("Sample", "cell_type")
        )

We can now calculate the correlation plot a scatter plot of the proportions. Note that you can change the type of correlation algorithm used in the `cor()` function. The default method is `"pearson"`.

    ## compute correlation with RNAScope/IF proportions
    cor(prop_compare$prop, prop_compare$prop_RNAScope)
    #> [1] 0.5339794

    ## Scatter plot with RNAScope/IF proportions
    prop_compare |>
        ggplot(aes(x = prop_RNAScope, y = prop, color = cell_type, shape = library_combo)) +
        geom_point() +
        geom_abline()

    ## correlation with snRNA-seq proportion
    cor(prop_compare$prop, prop_compare$prop_sn)
    #> [1] 0.8212221

    ## Scatter plot with RNAScope/IF proportions
    prop_compare |>
        ggplot(aes(x = prop_sn, y = prop, color = cell_type, shape = library_combo)) +
        geom_point() +
        geom_abline()

In the first plot we can see how `Bisque` overestimates the proportion of excitatory neurons (`Excit`) when compared against RNAScope/IF as all `Excit` points are higher than the diagonal line shown in black.

In the second plot we can see how `Bisque` proportions are closer to the snRNA-seq proportions. After all, given the challenges in generating orthogonal cell type proportion data, `Bisque` and other deconvolution methods were developed by comparing against simulated data, sometimes using pseudo-bulk sc/snRNA-seq data.

# 7. How to run deconvolution with `hspe`

hspe (formerly called dtangle) is another R package for deconvolution. It was also a top performing method in our deconvolution benchmark.

`hspe` is downloadable from GitHub but can’t be shown on this vignette as Bioconductor packages cannot use packages from GitHub.

Below we show some example code to prepare input data and run `hspe` (not run here):

    if (FALSE) {
        ## Install hspe
        # if (!requireNamespace("hspe", quietly = TRUE)) {
        #     ## Install version 0.1 which is the one listed on the main documentation
        #     ## at https://github.com/gjhunt/hspe/tree/main?tab=readme-ov-file#software
        #     remotes::install_url("https://github.com/gjhunt/hspe/raw/main/hspe_0.1.tar.gz")
        #     ## Alternatively, install from the latest version on GitHub with:
        #     # remotes::install_github("gjhunt/hspe", subdir = "lib_hspe")
        #
        #     ## As of 2024-08-23, it's been 3 years since files were last modified
        #     ## at https://github.com/gjhunt/hspe/tree/main/lib_hspe.
        # }
        # library("hspe")

        # pseudobulk the sce data by sample + cell type
        sce_pb <- spatialLIBD::registration_pseudobulk(sce,
            var_registration = "cellType_broad_hc",
            var_sample_id = "Sample"
        )

        ## extract the gene expression from the bulk rse_gene
        mixture_samples <- t(assays(rse_gene)$logcounts)
        mixture_samples[1:5, 1:5]

        ## create a vector of indexes of the different cell types
        pure_samples <- rafalib::splitit(sce_pb$cellType_broad_hc)

        ## extract the the pseudobulked logcounts
        reference_samples <- t(assays(sce_pb)$logcounts)
        reference_samples[1:5, 1:5]

        ## check the number of genes match in the bulk (mixture) and single cell (reference)
        ncol(mixture_samples) == ncol(reference_samples)

        ## run hspe
        est_prop_hspe <- hspe(
            Y = mixture_samples,
            reference = reference_samples,
            pure_samples = pure_samples,
            markers = marker_genes,
            seed = 10524
        )
    }

# Conclusion

In this vignette we have demonstrated some of the functions and data in the `DeconvoBuddies` package, and how to use them in a deconvolution workflow to predict cell type proportions. We used real data from a study on human brain.

# Reproducibility

The DeconvoBuddies package (Huuki-Myers, Maynard, Hicks et al., 2026) was made possible thanks to:

- R (R Core Team, 2026)
- BiocStyle (Oleś, 2026)
- knitr (Xie, 2025)
- RefManageR (McLean, 2017)
- rmarkdown (Allaire, Xie, Dervieux et al., 2026)
- sessioninfo (Wickham, Chang, Flight, Müller, and Hester, 2025)
- testthat (Wickham, 2011)

This package was developed using biocthis.

`R` session information.

    #> ─ Session info ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
    #>  setting  value
    #>  version  R version 4.6.0 (2026-04-24)
    #>  os       Ubuntu 24.04.4 LTS
    #>  system   x86_64, linux-gnu
    #>  ui       X11
    #>  language (EN)
    #>  collate  en_US.UTF-8
    #>  ctype    en_US.UTF-8
    #>  tz       Etc/UTC
    #>  date     2026-05-28
    #>  pandoc   3.8.3 @ /usr/local/bin/ (via rmarkdown)
    #>  quarto   1.9.37 @ /usr/local/bin/quarto
    #>
    #> ─ Packages ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
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    #>
    #> ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

# Bibliography

This vignette was generated using BiocStyle (Oleś, 2026) with knitr (Xie, 2025) and rmarkdown (Allaire, Xie, Dervieux et al., 2026) running behind the scenes.

Citations made with RefManageR (McLean, 2017).

[1] J. Allaire, Y. Xie, C. Dervieux, et al. rmarkdown: Dynamic Documents for R. R package version 2.31. 2026. URL: https://github.com/rstudio/rmarkdown.

[2] L. A. Huuki-Myers, K. R. Maynard, S. C. Hicks, et al. DeconvoBuddies: a R/Bioconductor package with deconvolution helper functions. https://github.com/LieberInstitute/DeconvoBuddies/DeconvoBuddies - R package version 1.5.0. 2026. DOI: 10.18129/B9.bioc.DeconvoBuddies. URL: http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/DeconvoBuddies.

[3] M. W. McLean. “RefManageR: Import and Manage BibTeX and BibLaTeX References in R”. In: The Journal of Open Source Software (2017). DOI: 10.21105/joss.00338.

[4] A. Oleś. BiocStyle: Standard styles for vignettes and other Bioconductor documents. R package version 2.41.0. 2026. URL: https://github.com/Bioconductor/BiocStyle.

[5] R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing (ROR: <https://ror.org/05qewa988>;). Vienna, Austria, 2026. DOI: 10.32614/R.manuals. URL: https://www.R-project.org/.

[6] H. Wickham. “testthat: Get Started with Testing”. In: The R Journal 3 (2011), pp. 5–10. URL: https://journal.r-project.org/articles/RJ-2011-002/.

[7] H. Wickham, W. Chang, R. Flight, et al. sessioninfo: R Session Information. R package version 1.2.3. 2025. URL: https://github.com/r-lib/sessioninfo#readme.

[8] Y. Xie. knitr: A General-Purpose Package for Dynamic Report Generation in R. R package version 1.51. 2025. URL: https://yihui.org/knitr/.